Table olives: cultivars, region and identity 109 At the same time, the growing appreciation of traditional foods and products of distinct origin has been increasing scientific and commercial interest in these cultivars, creating new opportunities for promoting the local economy and for affirming the gastronomic and cultural identity of the Trás-osMontes region. 4. Table olives as a sou rce of bioactive compounds Bioactive compounds exert physiological effects on the human body, playing important roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Monounsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid, are associated with anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective effects (Garrido-Romero et al., 2025). Their consumption has been linked to an increase in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) and a reduction in total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) (Rocha et al., 2020), resulting in benefits for the cardiovascular system. In addition to monounsaturated fatty acids, other relevant nutritional components include vitamin E (fat-soluble), particularly α-tocopherol, and dietary fibre, namely pectin, hemicelluloses, cellulose and lignin (Rocha et al., 2020). Vitamin E is the main vitamin present in olives, and its function is to protect the human body from oxidative damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are formed during metabolic processes or are present in the environment (Rocha et al., 2020). Furthermore, this compound may exert significant neuroprotective effects (Rocha et al., 2020). Other bioactive compounds can be found in table olives, namely (Rocha et al., 2020; Garrido-Romero et al., 2025): a) Phenolic compounds, including the following classes: (i) Simple phenols (e.g. hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol); (ii) Flavones (e.g. luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin and apigenin-7-Oglucoside); (iii) Flavonols (e.g. rutin); (iv) Anthocyanins (e.g. cyanidin-3-O-glucoside); (v) Phenolic acids (e.g. 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid), (vi) Cinnamic acid derivatives (e.g. verbascoside), and (vii) Secoiridoids (e.g. oleuropein, oleacein); b) Triterpenic acids / Triterpenes (e.g. maslinic acid, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, uvaol). Amongst polyphenols, flavonoids are of particular relevance to human health due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. These properties stem from their ability to neutralise free radicals and modulate key cellular signalling pathways, such as NF-κB and MAPK. The NF-κB pathway is involved in the cellular response to stimuli such as stress, cytokines, free radicals, ultraviolet radiation, LDL oxidation, and viral and bacterial antigens, playing a key role in regulating the immune response to infections. MAPK is a type of serine/threonine-specific protein kinase involved in regulating cellular responses to a wide range of stimuli, such as osmotic stress, heat shock and proinflammatory cytokines, influencing functions such as cell proliferation, gene expression, differentiation, mitosis, cell survival and apoptosis. These compounds also have the ability to influence enzymatic activity and inhibit pro-inflammatory mediators, contributing to their therapeutic potential (Garrido-Romero et al., 2025). With regard to oxidative stress and inflammation, hydroxytyrosol—a compound formed during the degradation of oleuropein—emerges as a potent antioxidant, unlike tyrosol, acting to neutralise reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activate cellular antioxidant systems, such as glutathione, superoxide dismutase, haem oxygenase-1 and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1, possibly via the activation of the Nrf2 and AMPK/FoxO3a pathways (Rocha et al., 2020). Carotenoids and phytosterols are other important bioactive compounds. Carotenoids, such as βcarotene and lutein, also offer benefits for human health. These compounds can reach the colon, promoting beneficial changes in the bacterial flora, as well as contributing to the integrity of the digestive system and ensuring the barrier function of the mucosa (Garrido-Romero et al., 2025).
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